INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Having established a strong hypothesis that English language learning difficulty is complex and involves a number of extra-linguistic factors and that teacher attempts to intervene in difficulty are often sporadic and unsystematic, it is interesting to speculate what concrete measures may be adopted by teachers to intervene and what model of understanding may be employed.

This speculation will proceed from four bases: systems analysis (e.g. Thompson 1971), Biggs’ approaches to learning (e.g. Biggs 1990) the idea of intervention incorporated in Transactional Analysis (e.g. Berne 1972) and the recommendations of my own for solving some language learning difficulties in Hong Kong (Adams 1991).

Systems analysis (see Thompson, 1971 and Casciano-Savignano 1978) is concerned with the examination of the education system with the aim of optimum arrangement of a wide range of factors: social, financial, didactic, cultural and so on.  It attempts to make clear the relationship between a hierarchy of priorities, performance levels and ultimate goals. Systems analysis does not identify clearly the relationships between factors and the trade-offs and mutual influence of a complex of factors.  It does not present a clear path to adjusting an existing system but rather a means of establishing a new one.  It is useful however for presenting a clear model of the great number of factors present in the process of producing a competent student.  Casciano-Savignano (1978) believes that administrative procedures must be compatible with the system design (which rather speaks against the idea of change affected solely at classroom level, which may be liberal in Hong Kong given a certain teacher, whilst administrative procedures are almost always conservative and hierarchical (see Bray 1990).  Moreover, she proposes that we must redesign educational objec­tives before we can redesign the system.  Educational objec­tives, aimed at exam passing for entry to a growing but still relatively small number of higher education places, are hardly likely to change in the foreseeable future in Hong Kong.  Ac­cording to Casciano-Savignano, a traditional teaching method may be just as successful as a more innovative approach ‘in a given situation’ (207) although curriculum and instruction is the ‘central subsystem’ (112).  Course development demands:

“  (1) a comprehensive test of the system’s output so that  the efficiency  of  the system can be assessed and  (2)  sufficient data  from the testing of the system, so that deficiencies  can be pinpointed and revisions made to increase efficiency” (204).

This obviously has implications for any research project design in systems analysis, demanding a large body of data for assess­ing and solving problems.  Finally, Casciano-Savignano believes that  ‘system-based program improvement is basically an inter­vention into an ongoing system’ (98) and improvements need to be made following a good measure of constant feedback from the system under consideration.

BIGGS’ ‘APPROACHES TO STUDY’

Biggs (1991) makes an important general observation in pointing to the great gap between research and practice in education in recent times. Thompson (1971) sees this in terms of the gap between research and development.  Certainly, Hong Kong has a wealth of educational experts in a variety of fields. Educational practice however resembles Europe of several decades ago in many respects.  Despite the progress made in making the teaching of English as a foreign language into a more and more exact and effective discipline, the actual practice of English teaching in Hong Kong remains in many schools, apparently, a simple process of rote, and grammar analysis.  Brilliant text books may be produced but it is obvious that they are not being used correctly.  Teachers are better trained than they used to be but everywhere English standards are said to be falling.

More specifically, Biggs believes, the large volume of literature on learning, thinking and problem-solving has had little effect on educational practice.  In Hong Kong, the student’s perspective in learning is held to be fairly predictable: adapt and perform.  This commonly-held belief is not supported by e.g. Biggs (1990 and 1991a).

Biggs proposes a set of approaches to study which affect the student’s ultimate success, namely deep, surface and achieving.

It is hypothesised in this thesis that the best approach in foreign language learning is a deep one, that is one in which the subject is absorbed into the whole of the personality.  This belief is not supported by some notable FLL (foreign language learning) approaches and methods, e.g. communicative language teaching. This approach, with its stress on need (a struggle to communicate) via relevant communicative functions (requests, denials, offers, complaints) probably encourages the achieving approach to the subject if not, for some students, a surface approach.  Other FLL approaches and methods would support this belief (e.g. total physical response, community language learning, the natural approach).

In the following table, we have attempted to construct an overview of the common methods and approaches now in use in TEFL throughout the world. Much of the information regarding methods and approaches was derived from Richards and Rogers (1986). For comparison, we place TALL in the list although its inclusion is strictly not valid given our declared intention that it is an auxiliary method rather than a distinct approach or method.

COMPARISONS BETWEEN TA LANGUAGE LEARNING AND INFLUENTIAL METHODS AND APPROACHES:

O/St = The Oral Approach and Situational Language Teaching

AL   = The Audiolingual Method

CLT  = Communicative Language Teaching

TPR  = Total Physical Response

SW   = The Silent Way

CLL  = Community Language Learning

NA   = The Natural Approach

SGP  = Suggestopaedia

TALL = Transactional Analysis Language Learning

Ling/Psych = Mainly linguistically or psychologically inspired

Cogn/Behav = Founded on cognitive or behaviourist psychology

Hum.       = Humanistic aims or background

Structured?= Is there a strict syllabus or defined procedure?

Student    = Refers to e.g. Biggs’ definitions.

Approach  Encouraged

Teacher    = What is the dominant teacher ego state employed

Function  or encouraged?

Interactive= Is there authentic interaction between student and teacher?

Gen. Ed.   = Is there likely to be a significant effect on the general education of the student?

Eur./A.    = Is the method perhaps predominantly applicable to Western or to Asian practice?

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS LANGUAGE LEARNING IS NOT A METHOD

Correctly speaking, TALL is neither an approach or method.  It can be used to regenerate any method or to enliven any approach.

Its main function is to loosen up language learning in any context and to make it more relevant and meaningful.  Thus, it may help out the Communicative approach as much as the apparently closely-related Community approach (which lacks a clear relation between it and other psychological and didactic realities within the whole school day, for example).

 TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS LANGUAGE LEARNING IS NOT CLL

Stevick (1976) so confused Seaton (1982) that the latter thought there was a link between TA and CLL and devotes pages to his handbook of ELT terms to a description of TA.  No such link actually exists. Firstly, Stevick merely proposed that TA was a useful framework for analyzing what goes on in learning and, in particular, the use of exercises and drills. He later understands CLL, the Silent Way and Suggestopaedia in terms of TA.  He declares however that: “I have used Transactional Analysis in an attempt to provide a different perspective on CLL. This should not, however, be taken to mean that the therapeutic principles of Transactional Analysis are identical to those of Counseling-Learning, from which CLL is derived” (Stevick 1976:132).

Stevick was correct in his assertion.  CLL (as represented e.g. in La Forge 1983) does however share some of the ideas generally used in Transactional Analysis (especially group) psychotherapy (e.g. the notion of contracts) and in the bases of Transactional Analysis theory (e.g. Erikson’s developmental theory). CLL and TA seem to be in the same general humanistic mould but CLL is probably just as related in spirit to encounter groups and Perls’ Gestalt therapy.

Stevick (1976) uses TA in a very interesting sense to understand the process of language learning, CLL included. He does not, however, establish a specific TA-oriented theory of language instruction or learning.

Stevick suggests that EGO STATES are ‘stored along with basic sentences and structural automaticies’, that TA games such as Schlemiel and Stupid may interfere with learning and that attention to TA time structuring might make mere rituals into more productive activity.  He proposes that language learners should be encouraged to take on a Child-like receptivity and sees clear advantages in ‘hooking’ the free rather than the Adapted Child.  These interesting references to Transactional Analysis do not constitute a coherent language learning model however.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS LANGUAGE LEARNING IN PRINCIPLE

The proposals for solving the ‘English language learning malaise’ in Adams (1991) include some of the key ideas of Transactional Analysis and as such may be termed a true TA approach to teaching and to language learning. Adams made seven proposals for bringing about change in the teaching of English in institutions of learning in Hong Kong:

1.) The principle of reality and the here-and-now.

2.) Activation of the Child.

3.) The negation of the Parent.

4.) The avoidance of games.

5.) The analysis of learning positions.

6.) The correct use of real strokes.

7.) Giving permissions.

These principles are intended to be guidelines for teachers because the teacher is perceived as the major agent of potential change in the classroom.  Principle no. 5 is an invention of Adams and is an extension of ‘life position’.

TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS LANGUAGE LEARNING IN PRACTICE

Although TALL may be employed as an auxiliary to existing approaches and methods, a certain methodology, or methodological change in the case of it being superimposed on an existing method, may be deduced from it.  How would a typical lesson be conducted? 

1.   The principle of reality is established by concentration on the personal, the real, the relevant and what the student is feeling, thinking and feeling.  Thus the beginning of each lesson is devoted to an exercise in which students express how they feel, what they are thinking and what they would like to do in the next hour (selecting from some suggestions by the teacher). 

Procedure: Questionnaire, discussion, pair work, teacher self-disclosure, invitation for students to tell something to the group as whole.

2.   The Child is activated by the attention to the feeling self in the exercise at the beginning of the class. The Free Child is activated at the expense of the Adapted Child

Procedure: Brainstorming, TPR exercises, quizzes, role play,

‘Let’s find out about...’, songs, pictures, love interest, pen, friends etc. etc.

3.   The teacher uses more Adult and Child. Students confront prejudices and negate primacy of first language structures.  ‘Interference’ is thus reduced. The Child activated in 2. is trained in awareness and receptivity (e.g. listening to how things are pronounced rather than imitating the same from the standpoint of first language).

Procedure: Teacher asks students to decide and to take responsibility for their progress.  Switch from dominant imposer of rules to facilitator with back-up Nurturing Parent.  Wh- questions to awaken  Adult. Assumptions about target language speakers are negated.  Familiarisation with target language speakers and culture encouraged through ‘street work’ (projects, free-time exploration of language learning opportunities).

4.   The special games of language learners are, according to Stevick (1976) Stupid, Schlemiel, Why Don’t You - Yes But, and That’s My Kid (overadaptation).  In Hong Kong, a special problem seems to be what Stevick terms lathophobic aphasia (fear of making mistakes). Project I identified this as a significant problem of Hong Kong students. Adams (1992) identifies ‘I Really Must Do Something About My English’ which has sub-games of ‘Lack Of Opportunities To Practice’ and ‘At Least I Tried’.  These latter games are characterised by the avoidance of situations in which English can be practiced with ease combined with assiduous application and effort.  Games are played through and with English in Hong Kong because of its character as a Parental language (in the sense that it is obsessively associated with power, success and control rather than spontaneity and naturalness.) Thus, in Hong Kong, agents outside the classroom such as school administrators and educational authorities play games with English which influence students and teachers (see Adams 1992: ‘I’m Only Trying To Help You’).

Procedure: Teacher halts Rescuing and Persecuting activities. Students set own goals and identify their wishes in learning English.  Teacher is natural and vulnerable.  Students are made aware of the language learner’s typical games. 

5.      Learning positions incorporate ideas such as ‘attitude’ and ‘motivation’ and present an extended dynamic to Biggs’ termi­nology. The student/subject (and if need be, student/institution and student/teacher) positions are not fixed verifiable ideas in the equation but flexible and mutable concepts. More impor­tantly, the idea of learning position is comprehensible, and, we would suggest, readily detectable. Once the learning posi­tion is  ‘diagnosed’  (probably by the teacher), it  may  be revealed to the student. The idea of approach to study is taken out of the hands of researching educational psychologists. As learning position may also relate to other more general  beha­viour  patterns manifested in school or beyond,  its  diagnosis may  be  usefully related to general educational  and  personal problems in a way students can readily grasp.  With the cooper­ation and the insight of the learner, the learning problem may then be more easily overcome.

6.       Procedure: Questionnaire to be administered before and during course.  Factors which contribute to OK/OK learning are identified and explained to students from the beginning. See Adams (1991) for details of the four positions in language learning.

An interesting parallel to learning positions is the type of questionnaire of teacher attitude based on TA concepts presented by Stevick (1976:88-89).

6.   Stevick sees ‘stroking’ (recognition) as important in language learning and relates it closely to the ‘transaction’. If the aim is to foster a learner autonomy without negative influences from the Parent or the Adapted Child, close attention must be given to the type of recognition given in language learning classrooms. It is hypothesised that Child-Child strokes (it’s really fun!) and Adult-Adult strokes (you are getting more capable every week) are more useful and potent than Parent-Adapted Child transactions/strokes (That’s My Boy!). Distinctions are made in TA between positive/negative, conditional/unconditional and real/plastic strokes. Individual stroking patterns (and the ‘stroking economy’ in general) is often very subtle and frequently unconscious negative strokes or conditional strokes are given by the teacher.  The stroke economy of the Hong Kong secondary school seems to over-emphasise negative and conditional strokes.  Language teachers clearly have to establish their own patterns of reward and recognition or restructure the available system of tests, marks etc. to incorporate their own aims (giving marks for participation, spontaneity, authenticity for example).

Procedure: Clear statement by teacher that spontaneity, awareness and authenticity will be rewarded and that the aim of the course is autonomy in an intimate, mutually-supportive group,(cf. Community Language Learning). Compilation of egogram and stroking profile. Encouragement of student mutual stroke-giving (which can also be a useful language exercise itself).

7.   ‘Permissions’ may be regarded as interventions to further a change in language learning attitude. They are dealt with below.

SHORTCOMINGS OF TRANSACTIONAL ANALYSIS LANGUAGE LEARNING 

As indicated in the above table, TALL is probably best applied in a Western environment as it calls for a good deal of confrontation, self-criticism and openness (not usually thought to characteristics of Chinese interpersonal relationships). Nevertheless, its initial use in local classes was successful. It could well be that there is a desire by students to overcome the restrictions of their received personality in language learning.

Much of the change in teacher and student will be difficult to assess. Moreover, the liberational element in TALL may result in a breakdown in discipline or be regarded as anarchic by superiors or parents. It will make certain students and teachers insecure.

INTERVENTION STRATEGIES

Intervention is in some ways a ‘buzzword’ in educational and psychological work at present, especially in the United States.  There were 2,094 entries under INTERVENTIONS in the ERIC database (Educational Resources Information Center of the U.S. Dept. of Education), March 1992 (all of which I have viewed) and 9,496 entries under INTERVENTION (which I have not).

‘Interventions’ are used mainly used in special education psychotherapy and in counselling.  Some use is made of the idea in ordinary education, e.g. Pre-School Children’s Help to Second Language Learners, Curricular Interventions for Teaching Higher Order Thinking, Implementing Complex Change in Urban Elementary Schools, Instructional Interventions in Mathematics Anxiety, The Empowerment of All Students. In the U.S. at least, intervention is an idea of increasing currency in education.

Eric Berne (1972) writes of ‘The Decisive Intervention’ in psychotherapy and sees it in terms of permission, i.e.” (1) A parental license for autonomous behaviour. (2) An intervention which gives the individual a license to disobey a parental injunction if he is ready, willing, and able, or releases him from parental provocation.” (Berne 1972: 444).

The idea of permission is further developed by Adams (1991) to include, in English language learning in Hong Kong: